Although gardening has perhaps fallen from fashion amongst the younger generations, the population of green-fingered enthusiasts falling as heavily as this winter’s snow, the gardening industry has exploded into a multi-million pound colossus. Dating from the days of Lancelot “Capability” Brown to Alan Titchmarch’s popular TV shows, the gardening fetish has taken the world by storm. Nonetheless, the more unorthodox reasons to explore the subject are not so widely celebrated. 

 

The Ugly Truth 

Far from the idyllic notion of tranquillity and peace, the darker truths of mystery, horror and conspiracy which surround the gardening scene have until recently been concealed from the public eye. Whether it is the hardship of Grey’s Gardens or the sordid truth behind the palace of Versailles, there are acres of untold stories that would shock historians, gardeners and landscape-lovers alike.

In Britain, the National Trust is hailed for bringing the joys of historical sites to the masses, and this includes the British countryside. A wealth of private estates have flung open their doors and welcomed visitors so that they might admire the pristine aesthetics of antique garden landscapes and stately homes. Blissfully unaware of the truth, the British public has wandered amicably through many an abandoned manor, soaking up the sunshine and contemplating the splendour of days gone past. However, sipping tea on the terrace and writing letters by the lake were past-times enjoyed by a very small minority of Estate owners: for those employed to maintain these ‘charming’ gardens, life was not so sickly-sweet… 

Whilst the National Trust may have gone to great lengths to celebrate our complex history, and the glory days of chivalry and etiquette, the trust has been equally successful in obscuring the more unpleasant truths about the garden estates of Britain. Prior to the 1500’s, a large proportion of Britain’s charming countryside was public space; citizens were free to gather berries, hunt for food and generally enjoy the area. However, following the land redistribution that took place during the 16th century, public land was given to private land owners, meaning that working-class citizens were no longer permitted to source food or ‘trespass’ upon that land. Unable to access this private land labourers were left with two possibilities: break the law or starve to death. Labourers soon found themselves forced into criminal activity as a means to provide food for their families.  

Estates belonging to men such as Viscount Cobham, constable of Windsor Castle, were policed vigorously, and trespassers were treated with zero-tolerance. In 1723, at the discretion of Viscount Cobham, the Black Act was passed, ruling that deer poaching, trespassing or hunting on private land were crimes punishable by death. This legislation demonstrated the harsh conflict of opinion between private landowners and landless labourers- a large majority of the working class believed that wild animals were free from possession and therefore anyone was entitled to hunt them. As it was, the government ruled that this was not the case and morbid tales of hangings and murders continued to plague the British countryside in places that we now hail as the most tranquil garden settings. The act was passed as a direct response to the criminal activity of the Waltham Blacks- men who instilled terror throughout the countryside, committing murder and theft wherever they went. Nonetheless, whilst their crimes cannot be condoned, they do rather prompt the question: if the land hadn’t been taken away in the first place, denying the public of their food supply and leaving common labourers in a dire state of poverty, would bandits such as the Wokingham Blacks ever have existed?

These few men were eventually arrested, and hung for their crimes. However, they represent a very large number of men executed for what was effectively no more than garden trespassing. Another poignant tale following land legislation, documented in E P Thomson’s book Whigs and Hunters illustrates the level that cold-hearted landowners such as Viscount Cobham were prepared to go to. The story tells how in 1748, two men sickened by the sight of their starving families took a courageous risk by breaking into Cobham’s estate and hunting deer. Caught in the act, the two men were held at the Estate in captivity until their wives came begging for their release. Being a merciful man, Cobham promised the return of the two men by the end of the month. True to his word, the constable had the two men delivered home to their wives- in body bags.

Events such as this were a common occurrence throughout the country, and continued right up until the eighteenth century. Nonetheless, following the unpleasant repercussions of the Enclosures Acts, and the disgruntled public attitude towards privately owned Estates, land was slowly released back to the public and in recent years the National Trust was formed with the intention of reopening these estates and making them available once more. Undeniably, the intentions of the trust are honourable- even if it does rather obscures the more sinister events of the British landscape.  

Britain isn’t the only country to have buried tyrannical secrets in its picture perfect landscape. A very similar situation occurred in France around the time of the French Revolution. Whilst the causes and triggers of the revolution are extremely complex, a significant factor contributing towards the revolt was the appropriation of land. A number of laws were passed throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which eventually led to previously acclaimed public lands becoming privately owned domains a large number of which was later transferred into vineyards. As well as this, a great conflict between the bourgeoisie and the nobility of France lead to the competitive acquisition of land.  

The fight for territory was fuelled by the fact that the ownership of land was accompanied by status- and status was not without wealth. Indeed the nobility owned almost 30% of France’s land; they were one of the most influential and wealthy classes. As a result, the bourgeoisie attempted to achieve the same standard- and the battle for land ownership was initiated. However, the attribution of wealth with land was something that peasant land-owners were excluded from. Peasants in general would rent their land to grow vegetables from ‘wealthier’ peasants- leading to peasant land ownership growing to 40%. Despite owning a large majority of French land, peasants found their assets much less profitable, leaving the working classes extremely disgruntled. This feeling of inequality was without doubt an important factor which contributed to the rise of the French Revolution- a time drenched in the blood and corruption of the French aristocracy.  

 

Digging for Victory. 

Although gardening, and vegetable patches have long been a popular past time, it wasn’t until the hardship of the Second World War that the utility of gardening was fully recognised. During the War Britain imported almost 55 million tonnes of food- a necessity that was both time consuming and costly. Furthermore, the most effective method of trade was by sea which meant that naval ships were accosted with strategic attacks from the German forces, resulting in devastating consequences. Before long it came to the attention of the government that if the country was going to survive the war Britain couldn’t rely on imports: food would have to be home-grown. Following this realisation, the government launched the Dig for Victory campaign- which encouraged the public to plant vegetable patches. Towns and villages were inundated with posters and flyers urging homeowners to convert their gardens into farming land and take part in what was a much needed mass-production of food. As well as vegetable growth, the public was urged to breed chickens, pigs and rabbits for themselves as opposed to relying on rations. The campaign was wholly embraced in both America and Britain, resulting in the increased production of home-grown food and leaving both countries almost entirely self-sufficient.  

The Victory Garden campaign was only a small representation of the enormous effort the general public of Britain, particularly the women, demonstrated during the war. The WLA (Women’s Land Army) was initially founded during the First World War and was re-instituted during the second. This army was established so that whilst the men were fighting and therefore unable to continue farming, the women would take over the agricultural demands of the country. Women more than rose to the challenge, astonishing a large number of sceptical on-lookers, and took on the harrowing life of farm work. The formation of the WLA was a poignant illustration of just how vital gardening can be- should Britain have failed to maintain agricultural businesses, the outcome of the war could have been dramatically different. 

 

Garden in Fashion 

Today we enjoy some of the most impressive and dynamic gardens designs of history and landscape architecture is now a thriving industry. However, even today landscape designers would struggle to better the designs of the iconic Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown- the man responsible for the gardens at Blenheim Palace, Cardiff Castle and Hampton court, as well as hundreds of other prestigious English sites.  

Lancelot Brown introduced the concept of fashion into gardening- his elaborate designs and grand themes led the British public into the world of aesthetics and showered them in water features, flower beds and outdoor statues. Gardens were no longer a food source but a work of art.  Brown’s style generally involved a grand architectural structure, as well as an elaborate lawn or maze area. Some of the most iconic gardens in Britain were planted under the supervision of this man.

Since Brown’s death gardeners continued to conjure more elaborate designs, leading to today where gardening has become a popular past time. The gardening world has given rise to numerous celebrities, fashions and crazes; from Alan Titchmarch to Tommy Walsh, there have been numerous popular figureheads for the industry. Indeed, nowadays you are as likely to find the ‘must have’ garden plant as the ‘must have’ hand bag. House pride has now infiltrated outdoors to the gardens, and the very idea of an empty hanging basket fills many a garden-owner with dread.

The radical way in which the significance of gardens has changed is truly astonishing. Over the years we have died for them, we have lived because of them and we have lovingly nurtured them. Gardens have influenced wars, created a multi million pound industries, caused riots and saved lives- there is simply not a scale large enough with which to measure the significance of the great outdoors.

Aerator

Designed to aerate soil. Lawn aeration increases the uptake of oxygen, water and nutrients by grass roots whilst encouraging the development of roots at greater depths. The process improves soil drainage and reduces the loss of fertilisers due to run off. Aerators penetrate the earth with either solid spikes (spike aerators) or hollow spikes (core aerators). Core aerators are typically more effective in helping to reduce compaction by removing small plugs of soil. Aerators often come in the form of a rectangular frame with 2-5 hollow tines which are driven into the ground by foot. There are also spiked aerating shoes and drum aerators which are rolled over the lawn.

Core Aerator

Cultivators

•    Hand Cultivator
Used to break up compacted soil, spread fertilisers and remove shallow weed roots in tight areas without disturbing the roots of surrounding plants. They also loosen soil and spread compost when preparing to plant flowers and shrubs. Hand cultivators can either have a long or short handle for gardening whilst standing or kneeling.

Hand Cultivator

 •    Rotary tiller
Rotary tillers are either gas or electrically powered cultivators with a similar function to hand cultivators but on a larger scale. The machine has rotating perpendicular blades which churn up grass and dirt when pushed along the lawn. Used before planting, they mix soil with fertilisers and till the area, converting soil lumps to a tilth. Attachments are available allowing the machine to plough soil or cut vegetation.


Edgers

•    Manual Edger
Mostly used whilst standing, manual edgers feature a hemispherical blade attached to a long handle. The tool is driven into the edges of turf giving a smoothly defined border. Some have flat surfaces at the top of the blade which allows the user to step on the blade and push it into the ground easier.

Manual Edger

•   Powered Edger
The majority of powered edgers, also known as strimmers, are electrically or gas/petrol powered and feature a nylon string blade which spins at high speeds - easily cutting through thick grass and weeds. The design allows operators to cut near surrounding objects such as roots, rocks and posts without damaging the tool. Powered edgers can be used to define lawn borders or to trim under decks and shrubs. Goggles should always be worn to protect against flying debris.

 

Forks

•    Spading Fork
Found in almost every shed, the spading fork performs a variety of tasks around the garden. They can be used to till large areas of soil and break up compacted dirt clods. It can also rake out weeds and stones in areas that do not contain desirable plants. The tool is available in many forms but commonly features four sturdy prongs attached to a long handle with a “D” or “T” end.

Spading Fork
•    Pitchfork
Mainly used in agriculture but also a useful gardening tool. It usually features two or three widely spread, pointed prongs attached to a long handle and is used to move loose material such as leaves, compost and tree clippings.

Pitch Fork
•    Potato Fork
Ideal for lifting potatoes and other vegetables but also used for general garden maintenance. Traditional designs feature many thin prongs (around nine) whilst more modern potato forks have four bayonet-shaped prongs. Both types are designed to avoid damaging potatoes and vegetables upon lifting.

Potato Fork

Gloves

Gloves are an essential gardening accessory. On the whole gloves protect from blisters, calluses, cuts, sun damage and dirt. There are many specialist designs for different tasks around the garden. Seedling gloves are waterproof and allow for extra dexterity while leather gloves protect from thorns and sharp objects but lack flexibility. There are gloves with reinforced tips, gloves with a comfortable lining and full length gloves which often extend up to the elbow.

 

Hoes

•    Garden Hoe
Due to its versatility, this tool is one of the most frequently used by gardeners. The design features a long handle with a flat, perpendicular blade at the end. Its many uses include removing weeds by agitating and grooming the soil surface, hilling soil, drilling soil (in preparation for planting) and many other tasks that involve moving and digging soil.

Garden Hoe

•    Scuffle Hoe
The scuffle hoe is slightly more specialised than the conventional garden hoe. Used for general weeding, the scuffle hoe’s tool-head is a distinctive (often square) loop of sharpened metal. The blade is pushed slightly below the surface of the soil and is pushed and pulled along the ground whilst walking backwards. This motion cuts the roots of shallow weeds and creates a fine soil tilth.

Scuffle Hoe

•    Warren Hoe
A specialised hoe, effective in making seed drills and earthing up potatoes, leeks and other vegetables. The blade of the tool is heart shaped with “ears” designed to bring soil back onto recently planted seeds. It can also function as a replacement for the hand trowel as the tool-head shape allows the operator to make single planting holes whilst standing up.

Warren Hoe

Hose

There are so many different models available that buying a garden hose now involves some thought into its main uses and over what area. Lengths can reach from 20 to 120 feet with an endless amount of fittings, nozzles and adapters. There are wall mounted hoses, coiled hoses, hoses designed to withstand freezing temperatures and hoses with rewind assistance.

 

Kneeler

There aren’t many active gardeners that don’t own a garden kneeler. This simple piece of equipment makes gardening cleaner and more comfortable. They protect your knees from sharp stones, prevent clothes from being stained and keep the working area dry and damp free. Quality kneelers help to reduce pain in the lower back, neck ache and knee trauma and are made from high density foam.

 

Knives

•    Pruning Knife
A simple tool used for delicate pruning such as cutting flower stems, pruning small branches and breaking up soil before planting seeds. Most pruning knives have roughly the same curve shaped blade but handle and blade sizes vary.

 

Pruning Knife

•    Machete
Similar to a sword, the machete features a large, strong blade usually around half a metre long. Shape, thickness and width vary between manufacturers and cultures. They are highly effective in cutting small branches and heavy underbrush.

Machete

•    Budding Knife
A small knife designed for delicate budding - grafting with a single eye or bud.

Budding Knife

Lawnmower

The lawnmower is a fundamental piece of gardening equipment. Its rotating blades cut large areas of grass to an even length. The blades can rotate about a vertical axis - known as rotary mowers, or about a horizontal axis – know as reel mowers. There are many different models but the main types are electric, cordless, gas/petrol powered and ride-on mowers.

 

Leaf Blower/Garden Vacuum

The leaf blower can be used all year-round but is especially useful in autumn. They blow cut grass, leaves and dirt from lawns, patios, and walkways. Most home-use leaf blowers are self contained, handheld units and are gas/petrol or electrically powered. Newer models also function as a garden vacuum which sucks leaves and twigs through an internal shredder and into a collection sack.

Pick Mattock

Designed for digging and breaking up highly compacted clay and soil. The tool features a pointed end (the pick) and a wide, chisel-like blade (the mattock). The tool-head is curved and used as a lever to break up hard ground. The mattock blade is perpendicular to the handle so that it can be used as a hoe.

Pick Mattock

Pressure Washer

Works by adding power to the flow of water, forcing an output with a high dynamic pressure. Water is expelled with such power that is can remove dirt, mould, mud, and many other layers of unwanted build up. It can clean a variety of objects and surfaces including garden furniture, tools, guttering, decking, wooden fences, bricking, patios and walkways. Pressure washers can be electric, diesel, petrol, gas or hydraulically powered.


Rakes

•    Flat Rake
Also known as a level head rake, this tool features a rectangular head with between ten and sixteen teeth connected centrally and perpendicularly to a long handle. The back of the head is even and straight, making it a good tool for levelling seedbeds. The rake can be used to clear debris, to break down clumps of soil and to spread fertiliser or compost. Vegetable growers us the flat rake to earth up vegetables

Flat Rake
•    Leaf Rake
Used to remove leaves and other light debris from lawns. The tool-head usually has around twenty tines and is fan shaped to cover a large area with each rake. The ends of the tines are designed so that they point to the ground at a slight angle when collecting. Some leaf rakes have an adjustable tool-head which changes the spread of the tines – having a thinner spread allows the rake to collect more awkward and heavier debris.

Leaf Rake
•    Bow rake
The bow rake is effectively a flat rake but with a bow shaped metal frame connecting the teeth to the handle. The frame absorbs high impact allowing the tool to rake heavier materials without fear of snapping.

Bow Rake

Saws

•    Pruning Saw
The pruning saw is used to cut small branches and limbs. It has larger teeth than regular saws with a blade roughly 20cm long at a slight angle to the handle. Some models have a blade which folds back into the handle for safer storage.

Pruning Saw

•    Bow Saw
Designed to prune large bushes and cut thick branches (up to around 10cm). The tool consists of a C-shaped frame which connects to each end of a toothed blade. The shape of the frame and blade lead to the name “bow” saw. The tension of the blade can be adjusted with a twisted cord that runs parallel to the blade.

Bow Saw
•    Powered Chainsaw
Powered chainsaws feature a toothed chain which rotates around a bar at high speeds. Depending on the size of the bar, this piece of equipment can be used to cut everything from smaller branches and firewood, to thick, fully grown forest trees. They are powered electrically or by gas/petrol.

Chainsaw

Shears

•    Pruning Shears
Also known as secateurs, most gardeners own a pair of pruning shears and use them regularly. They are small, hand-held, scissor-like clippers used to cut thin branches from bushes and small trees. They are also used more delicately for activities such as flower arranging and arboriculture.

Pruning Shears

•    Hedge Shears
Hedge shears are used to trim and evenly shape shrubs and hedges as opposed to pruning. They feature two sharp blades which act in a scissor motion when the handles are opened and closed. A number of sizes are available to buy with different power source options.

Hedge Shears

•    Loppers
This tool has features of both hedge and pruning shears. The blades are similar to those of pruning shears but with handles closer in shape and size to the hedge shears. Some loppers are used to prune twigs and small branches whilst others can cut thicker branches (up to 2cm thick). Models often feature telescopic handles which can be extended to two metres in length. The longer the handles the easier it is to cut thicker and higher branches.

Loppers

Shovels

•    Round Point Shovel
A highly versatile and widely used garden tool. The round point shovel is used to dig large holes and transport heavier materials such as wet soil and rocks. The tool-head has sharp edges which are rounded to a point in the middle. These sharp edges can cut into roots and sod, and can break up compacted soil. The head is bowl shaped to allow for scooping material.

Round Point Shovel

•    Garden Shovel
Similar to the round point shovel only smaller and lighter. It is used for tasks that do not require high impact and when dealing with lighter materials.

•    Square Point Shovel
With a flat, square shaped head, this tool is often used to level the earth in preparation for laying patios and walkways. It can also square off the sides and bases of ditches and can scoop moderately heavy materials such as gravel or soil.

Square Point Shovel

•    Scoop Shovel
Scoop shovels have a deep tool-head and are used to transport large amounts of light materials.  Because these shovels have a high volume, they should not be used for heavy materials and only for things like sawdust and snow.

Scoop Shovel

Shredder

Leaf shredders are often used to recycle waste accumulated when gardening, as well making waste easier to contain. They shred branches of trees and shrubs as well as leaves and cuttings. Shredding waste can provide useful material such as wood chip, high quality leaf mulch and compost.

 

Spades

•    Border Spade
Used when digging in confined areas between desirable plants and vegetables. The tool features a relatively flat and thin, rectangular blade, making it useful for tasks that do not require a blade quite as big as those found on regular shovels. They are frequently used when moving perennial plants.

Border Spade

•    Transplant Spade
A similar design to the border spade but with a thinner and elongated blade. Used when moving shrubs from within highly compacted areas of plants.

Transplant Spade

•    Trowel
The trowel is a small, hand held tool used in multiple tasks around the garden. They are typically used to dig small planting holes and for transplanting plants and vegetables with the roots still intact.  These miniature versions of spades/shovels are effective when working in flower boxes, potting sheds and other confined areas. The rockery trowel has an especially thin blade for use in very tight spaces and rockery areas.

Trowel

Watering Can

A portable water container for both indoor and outdoor use. They are commonly made of plastic or metal but ceramic models are available. They feature a handle and spout (occasionally with a sprinkler head) with a capacity from half a litre to ten litres.

 

Weeder

Also known as daisy grubbers, weeders are long, screwdriver shaped tools (though some newer models are more ergonomically shaped) which are used to remove weeds from lawns without damaging the grass. The narrow design and split blade make the tool effective when weeding in small places such as between paving stones. They are fairly specialised and do not have many other gardening uses.

Weeder

Wheelbarrow

Wheelbarrows are designed to make carrying heavy loads easier by distributing the weight of the load between the user and the wheel. The capacity of a wheelbarrow is on average 170 litres and they traditionally have a single wheel. Though the single wheel allows for good manoeuvrability, the two-wheeled design has better stability on the ground and is becoming a popular piece of garden equipment.

 

Garden Links

• The Gardening Launch Pad
• Garden Gallery

The beauty of a Japanese garden has long been admired; well renowned for their tranquil and serene environments, as well as their unique and impressive aesthetics, Japanese gardens have long captured the imagination of the Western world, influencing landscape designers and gardeners in abundance. As many have discovered, the ability to create these delicately constructed and organic artworks is something to admire. Japanese gardens exist today as symbols of the many influences that have infiltrated Japanese culture; whether religious, or purely social, the typified characteristics of these beautiful gardens exist as a consequence of a dramatic cultural blend.

 

 

          Above all, Japanese gardens demonstrate the Buddhist influences which were brought into Japan in 612; Ono-no-Imoko, an emissary from Japan, visited China and was able to absorb enough of the Buddhist way of life to recreate it once he returned home. At this time, gardens in Japan were solely created as religious representations of various beliefs- which established a comfortable common ground with the Chinese Buddhists. Every element of a Buddhist garden bursts with religious significance; pathways lead to enlightenment, whilst the soil represents the fertility and nurturing nature of Buddha’s mind. Nonetheless, whilst some of the Buddhist ideas were adopted in Japan, it was not to do so at the expense of the ancient Japanese religion, Shinto. It has always been firmly believed that the two religions, Shinto and Buddhism, are able to coexist in harmony; rather than separate each other the two religious intertwine. This fusion of religion has been widely demonstrated in Japanese culture; reflected within the foundational design of Japanese gardens.

 

The Tea Ceremony

          Further influences infused Japan in 1192 with the arrival of Eisai, a Buddhist monk from China. Eisai introduced the ‘Chan’, or ‘Zen’ way of teaching to Japan as well as the tea ceremony - a ritual based on the preparation and presentation of a powdered green tea (Matcha) which can be conducted indoors or outside.

          Between 1333 and 1573, Zen monks promoted the tea ceremony to such an extent that the ritual was sewn into the cultural fabric of Japan, and has remained intricately fundamental to Japanese  culture ever since. Before long, Chaniwa gardens (those specifically designed for tea ceremonies) began to thrive throughout the Japanese landscape, giving a weighty indication of just how highly regarded the ceremonies became. Nonetheless, the tea ceremony’s most significant impact on Japanese garden design came between 1568 and 1600 (known as the Azuchi-Momoyama period) in which tea ceremony pavilions began to feature prominently as popular garden characteristics; lanterns, stepping stones and arched bridges were increasingly fashionable in these new gardens, which today are considered the iconic objects of Japanese gardens. As a result, these features became intrinsic to Japanese garden design- and thus the religious significance that once accompanied the creation of Japanese gardens was forfeited to accommodate those who wished to take place in alternatives past-times, or to merely enjoy a meditative environment.

 

Tea ceremony, Kyoto Park. Image courtesy Tinafish

 

The Edo Period

          Further development occurred between 1603 and 1867 (the Edo period) when the ‘Stroll’ garden was established. These gardens were primarily created to satisfy the aristocracy of Japan by providing space for the leisure and amusements of its wealthier classes. The Stroll gardens, usually built on an aristocrat’s estate, were much more personal environments; designers would reconstruct landscapes taken from the owner’s personal experiences, or even recreate some of the most iconic places of the world. The Edo period of Japanese history is renowned for its feudal system, in which Shogun leaders (military commanders) would rule various areas of Japanese landscape. Shogun men were rewarded with land, especially Samurai warriors, for their loyalty - thus gardens were often used to demonstrate the individual and unique styles of each Samurai leader. The incorporation into the political world forced gardens into the mainstream of Japanese politics.

 

Stroll Garden, Sento Gosho Palace. Image courtesy Gardenvisit.com

 

Further Reading

• Japan Related Websites
• Japanese Garden Gallery
• William Corey Gallery

 

Indeed, as the exuberance and glamour that accompanied Japanese Garden styles began to experience the credit they deserved, businessmen and politicians were expected to display their success not only through the luxury of their homes, but through the majesty of their gardens as well. Indeed, as the power of the Emperor was diminishing in Japan, the power of the industrial man began to blossom, and along with them gardens were elevated to a much more significant status. During 1926 and 1989, the Showa period, Japan became the first East-Asian country to become industrialised. Whilst the county became more susceptible to modern influences, Western designers were just as eager to experiment with the more unusual Eastern designs. Therefore, the cultural fusion that has always dominated Japanese garden design came to a climax; the modern Western world permeated the Orient, and Japanese gardens lost the solely consecrated status they had once held, and were reborn as primarily commercial environments.